Terjemahan Jurnal Ali ADM

The simultaneous presence of the above four concepts ensures a balanced benefit to

the individual and the community. This is accentuated in the Quran (62:10): ‘‘Disperse

abroad in the land and seek of God’s bounty’’. Effort and competition have to be

conducted in such a way as not to inflict any intentional damage on others. Those who

conduct their business in a morally acceptable manner are held in high esteem. The

Quran (49:13) states, ‘‘The noblest of you in the sight of God is the best of you in

conduct’’.

This concept of morally responsible business conduct represented at that time a

major breakthrough in the world of trade. At that time, merchants and producers had

no guidelines and no ethical standards to rely on. Mohamed profoundly altered that

culture and insisted on moral conduct not only as a means for profitable business, but

also as a foundation for salvation. Mohamed seemed to recognize that a business could

not flourish in an environment that is characterized by abuse and unethical behavior.

This recognition prompted him to declare two essential foundations for fair

competitive environment: ‘‘Religion is found in the way of dealing with other people’’

and ‘‘He who cheated us is not from us’’. In the context of these two pillars, he strongly

rejected the concept ‘‘Buyer beware’’. The underlying assumption of this concept

implies that deceiving is not only a possibility, but a fact of market condition. It further

shifts the responsibility of inspection from the producer/supplier to the buyer or

customer, infers a hidden cost and creates formidable obstacles to free and fair market

practice. In fact, the concept conveys that a competitive environment is subject to

corruption and abuse. Consequently, the outcome is a mistrust of market institutions.

The introduction of transparency and honesty in the marketplace highlights two

issues: the importance of character and credibility of those involved in sustaining

market stability and that the prosperity of business people, both as individuals and as

a group, is interwoven. That is, the moral stance of business people is the only credible

assurance for minimizing or preventing market scandals, abuses and disruption. Only

moral and honest conduct inspires confidence in the market and reinforces social

contract, ethical understanding and motivates market actors to focus on meeting their

primary business responsibilities. Hence, partners, clients, competitors and customers

acquire faith in each other’s good intentions.

The IWE in practice

It is important to note that the dominant features of the IWE are contained in all

Islamic schools of thought, except in the Jabria School (predestination). In its spirit and

meaning, the IWE stands in contrast to the teaching of the Jabria school which is

currently sanctioned by existing Arab/Islamic governments. Since the Iranian

revolution in 1979, however, a cultural awakening has spread throughout the Islamic

countries, and many groups and associations have been established to advocate

cultural revivalism. The IWE, thus, appears to attract many segments of the

population, not only for cultural reasons but because the IWE encourages the

individual to better him/herself and to strive for economic prosperity. The cultural

wakening resulted in some degree of sensitivity to economic and political calamity that

exists in most Muslim societies. Perhaps, this development has intensified an interest,

especially among the educated and professional people, in the nature of IWE and its

role in modern society.

Consequently, many professional organizations and institutes have embarked on

studying and presenting work ethic in a changing world. After an extensive review of

the literature and consultation with several Muslim scholars, Ali (1988) developed a

construct for measuring IWE. The measure includes 46 statements and it was found to

be reliable and valid. Subsequent empirical studies were conducted in several countries

evidence the validity and reliability of the measure. The IWE construct captures the

essence of work ethic in Islam. It highlights that work is an obligatory activity and a

virtue in light of the needs of human being and the necessity to establish equilibrium in

one’s individual and social life. Work enables a person to be independent and is a

source of self-respect, satisfaction and fulfillment. Success and progress on the job

depends on hard work and commitment to one’s job. Commitment to work also

involves a desire to improve the community and societal welfare. Society would have

fewer problems if individuals were committed to their work and avoided unethical

methods of wealth accumulation. Creative work and cooperation are not only a source

of happiness, but are considered noble deeds as well.

The core of IWE is profoundly different from the Protestant Work Ethic. Even

though both of them place an emphasis on work involvement and work as a divine

calling, IWE encompasses dimensions that are not explicitly addressed in PWE. In

particular, there is an emphasis in IWE on intention, rather then outcome, as a measure

of morality. Engaging in monopoly, gambling or trading in alcohol, for example, may

bring fortune, but are considered an immoral endeavor. Serving others and the

community is considered an integral part of IWE. Furthermore, the ever-existing

possibility of deceptive behavior makes it an obligation for those engage in any

transaction to be transparent. In this context, the saying ‘‘Buyer beware’’ is not

sanctioned.

Empirical studies show that IWE is correlated with various organizational factors.

Ali (1992) demonstrated a high correlation between IWE and individualism. In their

studies of work ethic in the USA and Canada Ali et al. (1995) found that PWE, work

involvement and work individualism measures correlated with IWE. Yousef (2001a, b)

studied the relationships between IWE and job satisfaction and organizational

commitment and found a strong correlation among these factors. Previously, Yousef

(2000) found positive high relationships between IWE and role ambiguity and locus of

control scales. Abu-Saad (2003) empirically studied IWE among Arab schoolteachers

in Israel and found that, unlike Western instruments of work ethics, IWE uniquely

captured the importance of one’s contribution to community and society and the

obligations of the organization to its employees. Recently, Ali and Al-Kazemi (2006)

reported that IWE is strongly related to loyalty measure.

In a survey using a short version of the IWE in several Muslim countries, it was

found that managers and employees scored high on the IWE; using five-point scale.

The overall mean of the IWE in Arabia is 4.16, the UAE is 4.26 and Kuwait is 4.32; all

are relatively high (see Table I). These results are consistent with results provided by

Yousef (2001a, b) and Abu-Saad (2003). Both authors reported that their subjects scored

high on IWE.

The results in Table I demonstrate a high commitment to work ethic among

Muslims managers and employees. In particular, the results revealed that participants

view work as a virtue, that work benefits both one’s self and others, that justice and

generoisty in the workplace are necessary conditions for society’s welfare, that a

person should carry out work to the best of their ability, that life has no meaning

without work, that work allows a person to control nature and be independent and that

creative work is a source of happiness and accomplishment. These results, along with

others, differentiate IWE from PWE and demonstrate an attachment to work beyond

self-interest and the narrow definition of work involvement.

Implications

There are various implications for the strong commitment to the IWE among Muslim

managers. First, there is an emphasis on hard work, meeting deadlines and persistence.

This means that in introducing change, the establishment of a timetable and

clarification of goals and responsibilities are essential in carrying out a successful

intervention. Second, work is viewed not as end in itself, but as a means to foster

personal growth and social relations. In this context, group interactions and team

activities, if designed appropriately, could result in optimal facilitation of intended

changes. Third, dedication to work and work creativity are seen as virtuous. Managers

and consultants should focus their process design on the new method of change and on

producing results that reinforce existing commitment and enthusiasm. Fourth, justice

and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions for society’s welfare. This

has three implications: managers/consultants must show that they are attentive to and

are concerned about human needs; when considering firing employees for example,

they may consider factors other than performance before a decision is made; social

skills and mastering public relations are essential to effect change in a successful

intervention – in highly personalized Muslim societies, once a commitment is obtained

there will be smooth implementation; and goals for change are directed toward serving

the community or the society as a whole; that is the managers should highlight the

fruits of the results to the organization and society. Fifth, business transparency is not

only a good practice, but also a virtue. It inspires confidence in and sustains market proper functions. Finally, unlike the Judeo-Christian ethic, the IWE places more

emphasis on intentions than on results. The Prophet Mohammed stated, ‘‘Actions are

recorded according to intention, and man will be rewarded or punished accordingly’’.

That is, unlawful work that results in accumulation of wealth (e.g. gambling,

prostitution, drug trafficking, deceiving, extortion, hoarding, monopoly) is condemned

and those who engage in it are looked upon with contempt.

Beyond managing and organizing, there are general implications. These

implications provide practical insight into the cultural and political conditions

prevailing in many Muslim societies. As was discussed in the preceding sections, in the

West, scholars attributed economic progress and growth to the rise of PWE. In Muslim

societies, results of the aforementioned studies show the existence of a high

commitment to work. Nevertheless, most of these societies experience economic

stagnation and poor performance in the areas of technological creativity and economic innovation. Economic progress, however, should not be primarily attributed to the

existence of a strong commitment to work. It is possible that managers and

professional classes who participated in the mentioned studies are aware and more

sensitive not only to the prevailing international and national conditions but also to

the spirit and meaning of IWE. Their assessments and attitude may not resemble

the general attitude of the ordinary citizens in the society.More importantly, productive

work is possible when both national and international conditions are conducive. Most

Muslim societies have been subjected to colonization and invasion. The governments

that were established after the end of colonization have been mostly authoritarian and

do not answer to their people. These governments have been interested in maintaining

power and pleasing foreign powers.While the current political events and instability in

the Middle East and South Asia are a reminder of the plight of these societies, one

should note that distant events have profoundly shaped the political and cultural

aspects of these societies. For example, British scholar, Rom Landau, visited the Middle

East in the early 1930s and noted (1938:8), that the financial downfall of the region was

inevitable as a result of the domination of theWest, and that ‘‘Western greed, disguised

as superiority, spread the rumor that without Western administration and financial

advisers the orient was doomed to failure’’. Furthermore, Yergin (1991) notes that, for a

long time, economic destinies of Arab-oil producing states were dictated from remote

locations in London, New York and so forth. Berque (1991) argues that the Arabs have

lost their equilibrium and the mechanism to control their destiny owing not only to

Western political domination but also toWestern social and spiritual mores.

Moreover, the issue of cultural discontinuity should not be overlooked in any

discourse on IWE and economic progress. After the collapse of the Arab Caliph around

1258 non-Arab rulers who had little understanding of the cultural tenants governed

Muslim societies with an iron fist. Turner (1981) argues that Islamic stagnation and the

servile imitation of traditions were the inevitable consequences of military absolutism.

In order to maximize their control over the Islamic umma [nation], the new rulers

encouraged a conservative theology of strict obedience to authority. Intellectual

pursuits and formal schooling were prohibited and Jabria principles were advanced.

With the absence of written communication, the lack of knowledge of general Islamic

principles, and the isolation of Muslims in different parts of the world, many Muslim

people adopted various foreign rituals and legends as their own. The supremacy of

Western colonial powers over the Arab/Islamic lands, especially after the breakdown

of the Ottoman Empire, further reinforced cultural discontinuity and alienation.

For example, even though the Western powers allowed schools to open in various

Muslim countries in the first decades of the 20th century, they attempted to replace the

Arabic language with French or English in the Arab world and in other non-Arab

Muslim countries. Attempts were made to replace the Arab alphabet with the

Latin one (e.g. countrie Asia). In fact, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, the French

colonial power forced its language on the indigenous people. After independence, the

new governments did not make serious attempts to revise the colonial legacy, and

the French language is still used for instruction at the university level and in the

workplace.

In fact most of the states, which emerged afterward, lacked the enthusiasm, energy

and invigoration that characterized the early decades of the Ommeyade and Abbasid

empires. Likewise, some of these states did not appreciate trade and were suspicious of

merchants. For example, some of the rulers during the Mamluk era (1250-1517) in both

Egypt and Syria were not friendly to merchants. Goitein (1968, p. 351) states that the ‘‘rapacious Mamluks, always watchful not to let any one become too prosperous and

mighty, destroyed systematically the great merchant houses by imposing on them

exorbitant contributions or by wholesale confiscation of the remaining estates’’.

The point is that in a state of cultural discontinuity it is more likely that individuals

and groups alike will not have the necessary frame of reference to move forward with

confidence, discipline and determination. Furthermore, under the condition of political

oppression and turmoil, individual will lack not only the necessary discipline to be

productive but also the spirit to work freely and creatively.

Conclusion

In this paper, an attempt was made to provide an in-depth review of IWE. The concept

of work ethic, its presence and evolution have been covered. Political, social and

economic conditions that gave rise to IWE were addressed. It was demonstrated that

certain factors, especially faith, have cultivated and eased the emergence of work ethic.

During the first few centuries of Islam, trade and other economic activities were

encouraged and promoted. At that time, rulers displayed an enthusiasm and

commitment to trade. They played a significant role in providing protection to

merchants and trade. As such, merchants and commerce were held in high regard.

Consequently, Muslim merchants reached foreign lands and operated in different

countries. As inflexible attitudes, rigid beliefs and foreign domination swept across the

Muslim lands, trade, creative thinking and scientific discoveries experienced serious

stagnations and setbacks. Since that time, economic and organizational activities have

not progressed adequately.

The paper proposed that, in general and in terms of business and management,

Islamic principles and the original thinking of the early Muslim generations are

conducive for building business institutions and for a market economy that is founded

on justice and responsible competition. Moral principles, hard work and commitment

to the community which helped the Muslim society to thrive economically in the past

have the promise to strengthen commerce and economic progress in today’s world.

These principles are vital for independent thinking, genuine creativity and dynamic

commerce.