Tuesday, November 14, 2017

Terjemahan Jurnal Ali ADM



The simultaneous presence of the above four concepts ensures a balanced benefit to
the individual and the community. This is accentuated in the Quran (62:10): ‘‘Disperse
abroad in the land and seek of God’s bounty’’. Effort and competition have to be
conducted in such a way as not to inflict any intentional damage on others. Those who
conduct their business in a morally acceptable manner are held in high esteem. The
Quran (49:13) states, ‘‘The noblest of you in the sight of God is the best of you in
conduct’’.
This concept of morally responsible business conduct represented at that time a
major breakthrough in the world of trade. At that time, merchants and producers had
no guidelines and no ethical standards to rely on. Mohamed profoundly altered that
culture and insisted on moral conduct not only as a means for profitable business, but
also as a foundation for salvation. Mohamed seemed to recognize that a business could
not flourish in an environment that is characterized by abuse and unethical behavior.
This recognition prompted him to declare two essential foundations for fair
competitive environment: ‘‘Religion is found in the way of dealing with other people’’
and ‘‘He who cheated us is not from us’’. In the context of these two pillars, he strongly
rejected the concept ‘‘Buyer beware’’. The underlying assumption of this concept
implies that deceiving is not only a possibility, but a fact of market condition. It further
shifts the responsibility of inspection from the producer/supplier to the buyer or
customer, infers a hidden cost and creates formidable obstacles to free and fair market
practice. In fact, the concept conveys that a competitive environment is subject to
corruption and abuse. Consequently, the outcome is a mistrust of market institutions.
The introduction of transparency and honesty in the marketplace highlights two
issues: the importance of character and credibility of those involved in sustaining
market stability and that the prosperity of business people, both as individuals and as
a group, is interwoven. That is, the moral stance of business people is the only credible
assurance for minimizing or preventing market scandals, abuses and disruption. Only
moral and honest conduct inspires confidence in the market and reinforces social
contract, ethical understanding and motivates market actors to focus on meeting their
primary business responsibilities. Hence, partners, clients, competitors and customers
acquire faith in each other’s good intentions.
The IWE in practice
It is important to note that the dominant features of the IWE are contained in all
Islamic schools of thought, except in the Jabria School (predestination). In its spirit and
meaning, the IWE stands in contrast to the teaching of the Jabria school which is
currently sanctioned by existing Arab/Islamic governments. Since the Iranian
revolution in 1979, however, a cultural awakening has spread throughout the Islamic
countries, and many groups and associations have been established to advocate
cultural revivalism. The IWE, thus, appears to attract many segments of the
population, not only for cultural reasons but because the IWE encourages the
individual to better him/herself and to strive for economic prosperity. The cultural
wakening resulted in some degree of sensitivity to economic and political calamity that
exists in most Muslim societies. Perhaps, this development has intensified an interest,
especially among the educated and professional people, in the nature of IWE and its
role in modern society.
Consequently, many professional organizations and institutes have embarked on
studying and presenting work ethic in a changing world. After an extensive review of
the literature and consultation with several Muslim scholars, Ali (1988) developed a
construct for measuring IWE. The measure includes 46 statements and it was found to
be reliable and valid. Subsequent empirical studies were conducted in several countries
evidence the validity and reliability of the measure. The IWE construct captures the
essence of work ethic in Islam. It highlights that work is an obligatory activity and a
virtue in light of the needs of human being and the necessity to establish equilibrium in
one’s individual and social life. Work enables a person to be independent and is a
source of self-respect, satisfaction and fulfillment. Success and progress on the job
depends on hard work and commitment to one’s job. Commitment to work also
involves a desire to improve the community and societal welfare. Society would have
fewer problems if individuals were committed to their work and avoided unethical
methods of wealth accumulation. Creative work and cooperation are not only a source
of happiness, but are considered noble deeds as well.
The core of IWE is profoundly different from the Protestant Work Ethic. Even
though both of them place an emphasis on work involvement and work as a divine
calling, IWE encompasses dimensions that are not explicitly addressed in PWE. In
particular, there is an emphasis in IWE on intention, rather then outcome, as a measure
of morality. Engaging in monopoly, gambling or trading in alcohol, for example, may
bring fortune, but are considered an immoral endeavor. Serving others and the
community is considered an integral part of IWE. Furthermore, the ever-existing
possibility of deceptive behavior makes it an obligation for those engage in any
transaction to be transparent. In this context, the saying ‘‘Buyer beware’’ is not
sanctioned.
Empirical studies show that IWE is correlated with various organizational factors.
Ali (1992) demonstrated a high correlation between IWE and individualism. In their
studies of work ethic in the USA and Canada Ali et al. (1995) found that PWE, work
involvement and work individualism measures correlated with IWE. Yousef (2001a, b)
studied the relationships between IWE and job satisfaction and organizational
commitment and found a strong correlation among these factors. Previously, Yousef
(2000) found positive high relationships between IWE and role ambiguity and locus of
control scales. Abu-Saad (2003) empirically studied IWE among Arab schoolteachers
in Israel and found that, unlike Western instruments of work ethics, IWE uniquely
captured the importance of one’s contribution to community and society and the
obligations of the organization to its employees. Recently, Ali and Al-Kazemi (2006)
reported that IWE is strongly related to loyalty measure.
In a survey using a short version of the IWE in several Muslim countries, it was
found that managers and employees scored high on the IWE; using five-point scale.
The overall mean of the IWE in Arabia is 4.16, the UAE is 4.26 and Kuwait is 4.32; all
are relatively high (see Table I). These results are consistent with results provided by
Yousef (2001a, b) and Abu-Saad (2003). Both authors reported that their subjects scored
high on IWE.
The results in Table I demonstrate a high commitment to work ethic among
Muslims managers and employees. In particular, the results revealed that participants
view work as a virtue, that work benefits both one’s self and others, that justice and
generoisty in the workplace are necessary conditions for society’s welfare, that a
person should carry out work to the best of their ability, that life has no meaning
without work, that work allows a person to control nature and be independent and that
creative work is a source of happiness and accomplishment. These results, along with
others, differentiate IWE from PWE and demonstrate an attachment to work beyond
self-interest and the narrow definition of work involvement.
Implications
There are various implications for the strong commitment to the IWE among Muslim
managers. First, there is an emphasis on hard work, meeting deadlines and persistence.
This means that in introducing change, the establishment of a timetable and
clarification of goals and responsibilities are essential in carrying out a successful
intervention. Second, work is viewed not as end in itself, but as a means to foster
personal growth and social relations. In this context, group interactions and team
activities, if designed appropriately, could result in optimal facilitation of intended
changes. Third, dedication to work and work creativity are seen as virtuous. Managers
and consultants should focus their process design on the new method of change and on
producing results that reinforce existing commitment and enthusiasm. Fourth, justice
and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions for society’s welfare. This
has three implications: managers/consultants must show that they are attentive to and
are concerned about human needs; when considering firing employees for example,
they may consider factors other than performance before a decision is made; social
skills and mastering public relations are essential to effect change in a successful
intervention – in highly personalized Muslim societies, once a commitment is obtained
there will be smooth implementation; and goals for change are directed toward serving
the community or the society as a whole; that is the managers should highlight the
fruits of the results to the organization and society. Fifth, business transparency is not
only a good practice, but also a virtue. It inspires confidence in and sustains market proper functions. Finally, unlike the Judeo-Christian ethic, the IWE places more
emphasis on intentions than on results. The Prophet Mohammed stated, ‘‘Actions are
recorded according to intention, and man will be rewarded or punished accordingly’’.
That is, unlawful work that results in accumulation of wealth (e.g. gambling,
prostitution, drug trafficking, deceiving, extortion, hoarding, monopoly) is condemned
and those who engage in it are looked upon with contempt.
Beyond managing and organizing, there are general implications. These
implications provide practical insight into the cultural and political conditions
prevailing in many Muslim societies. As was discussed in the preceding sections, in the
West, scholars attributed economic progress and growth to the rise of PWE. In Muslim
societies, results of the aforementioned studies show the existence of a high
commitment to work. Nevertheless, most of these societies experience economic
stagnation and poor performance in the areas of technological creativity and economic innovation. Economic progress, however, should not be primarily attributed to the
existence of a strong commitment to work. It is possible that managers and
professional classes who participated in the mentioned studies are aware and more
sensitive not only to the prevailing international and national conditions but also to
the spirit and meaning of IWE. Their assessments and attitude may not resemble
the general attitude of the ordinary citizens in the society.More importantly, productive
work is possible when both national and international conditions are conducive. Most
Muslim societies have been subjected to colonization and invasion. The governments
that were established after the end of colonization have been mostly authoritarian and
do not answer to their people. These governments have been interested in maintaining
power and pleasing foreign powers.While the current political events and instability in
the Middle East and South Asia are a reminder of the plight of these societies, one
should note that distant events have profoundly shaped the political and cultural
aspects of these societies. For example, British scholar, Rom Landau, visited the Middle
East in the early 1930s and noted (1938:8), that the financial downfall of the region was
inevitable as a result of the domination of theWest, and that ‘‘Western greed, disguised
as superiority, spread the rumor that without Western administration and financial
advisers the orient was doomed to failure’’. Furthermore, Yergin (1991) notes that, for a
long time, economic destinies of Arab-oil producing states were dictated from remote
locations in London, New York and so forth. Berque (1991) argues that the Arabs have
lost their equilibrium and the mechanism to control their destiny owing not only to
Western political domination but also toWestern social and spiritual mores.
Moreover, the issue of cultural discontinuity should not be overlooked in any
discourse on IWE and economic progress. After the collapse of the Arab Caliph around
1258 non-Arab rulers who had little understanding of the cultural tenants governed
Muslim societies with an iron fist. Turner (1981) argues that Islamic stagnation and the
servile imitation of traditions were the inevitable consequences of military absolutism.
In order to maximize their control over the Islamic umma [nation], the new rulers
encouraged a conservative theology of strict obedience to authority. Intellectual
pursuits and formal schooling were prohibited and Jabria principles were advanced.
With the absence of written communication, the lack of knowledge of general Islamic
principles, and the isolation of Muslims in different parts of the world, many Muslim
people adopted various foreign rituals and legends as their own. The supremacy of
Western colonial powers over the Arab/Islamic lands, especially after the breakdown
of the Ottoman Empire, further reinforced cultural discontinuity and alienation.
For example, even though the Western powers allowed schools to open in various
Muslim countries in the first decades of the 20th century, they attempted to replace the
Arabic language with French or English in the Arab world and in other non-Arab
Muslim countries. Attempts were made to replace the Arab alphabet with the
Latin one (e.g. countrie Asia). In fact, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, the French
colonial power forced its language on the indigenous people. After independence, the
new governments did not make serious attempts to revise the colonial legacy, and
the French language is still used for instruction at the university level and in the
workplace.
In fact most of the states, which emerged afterward, lacked the enthusiasm, energy
and invigoration that characterized the early decades of the Ommeyade and Abbasid
empires. Likewise, some of these states did not appreciate trade and were suspicious of
merchants. For example, some of the rulers during the Mamluk era (1250-1517) in both
Egypt and Syria were not friendly to merchants. Goitein (1968, p. 351) states that the ‘‘rapacious Mamluks, always watchful not to let any one become too prosperous and
mighty, destroyed systematically the great merchant houses by imposing on them
exorbitant contributions or by wholesale confiscation of the remaining estates’’.
The point is that in a state of cultural discontinuity it is more likely that individuals
and groups alike will not have the necessary frame of reference to move forward with
confidence, discipline and determination. Furthermore, under the condition of political
oppression and turmoil, individual will lack not only the necessary discipline to be
productive but also the spirit to work freely and creatively.
Conclusion
In this paper, an attempt was made to provide an in-depth review of IWE. The concept
of work ethic, its presence and evolution have been covered. Political, social and
economic conditions that gave rise to IWE were addressed. It was demonstrated that
certain factors, especially faith, have cultivated and eased the emergence of work ethic.
During the first few centuries of Islam, trade and other economic activities were
encouraged and promoted. At that time, rulers displayed an enthusiasm and
commitment to trade. They played a significant role in providing protection to
merchants and trade. As such, merchants and commerce were held in high regard.
Consequently, Muslim merchants reached foreign lands and operated in different
countries. As inflexible attitudes, rigid beliefs and foreign domination swept across the
Muslim lands, trade, creative thinking and scientific discoveries experienced serious
stagnations and setbacks. Since that time, economic and organizational activities have
not progressed adequately.
The paper proposed that, in general and in terms of business and management,
Islamic principles and the original thinking of the early Muslim generations are
conducive for building business institutions and for a market economy that is founded
on justice and responsible competition. Moral principles, hard work and commitment
to the community which helped the Muslim society to thrive economically in the past
have the promise to strengthen commerce and economic progress in today’s world.
These principles are vital for independent thinking, genuine creativity and dynamic
commerce.

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